Since her death in 1519, two enduring images of Lucrezia Borgia have emerged. One, that she was a poisoner and adulteress, guilty of incest and complicit in her family’s sordid doings. The other, that she was nothing but a pawn in her father and brother’s schemes, weak-minded and easily manipulated. But which, if either, is the truth?

Some things are certain:

1. Lucrezia was known to be a beauty.
2. She was married three times and two of her husbands were disposed of once their usefulness ran out.
3. She was a highly educated woman who wielded power effectively—something which instantly marked her as dangerous in the 15th century.
4. She had several extra-marital relationships and may have had a child out of wedlock.
5. She was the central woman of the Borgia family, meaning she was a target for rumour and scandal.

But does any of this mark her definitively as either a femme fatale or a pawn? One could argue that it makes her more a woman of her time who did what was necessary to survive than either of those things.

Lucrezia was a member of arguably the most infamous families of her time, the illegitimate daughter of Pope Alexander VI and his favourite mistress, Vannozza dei Cattanei. It was not uncommon for supposedly celibate men to have relationships and illegitimate children, but what was unusual was that Alexander openly acknowledged his children and took a great interest in their upbringing. As a result, Lucrezia grew up in the lap of luxury and she was well-educated, having an extensive knowledge of the humanities and languages. She was shrewd and capable, and had excellent political judgement.

This meant several things. First (and, perhaps, foremost) that she was desirable as a wife. By the time Lucrezia was thirteen, she had already been engaged three times, the last of which ended in marriage to her first husband, Giovanni Sforza. He came from a powerful family who had supported Alexander in his election as Pope, so the marriage was, at the time, politically advantageous.

We will come back to what became of her marriages later.

Lucrezia’s skills led to her father leaving her in charge of papal duties while he was absent. In the fifteenth century, a woman with power was often considered dangerous by men, and it is certain that the clergy would have been disturbed and concerned by Lucrezia’s presence. The fact that she was illegitimate would not have helped matters.

The Borgia family were widely disliked in Italy, partly because they were of Spanish origin. They were mistrusted and their rapid rise to power was suspicious; as such, rumours began to fly about their cruelty, and Lucrezia in particular would become known for her use of poison—strange, because there is no proof of her ever having poisoned someone. 

It is true, however, that the Borgias—particularly Pope Alexander and Lucrezia’s eldest brother, Cesare—were often brutal with enemies and quick to dispose of people once they were no longer useful. Lucrezia would have been aware of this; her complicity in such acts is unclear, though evidence seems to suggest she did not take after her family as the legends would have you believe.

Lucrezia’s reputation, however, was not helped by her marriages. The first was not a happy one, and soon enough the Sforzas fell out of favour with Alexander. He secretly arranged for Giovanni to be killed; the plot did not come to fruition, as it is believed that Cesare told Lucrezia about it and she warned her husband, causing him to flee.

The Pope then arranged for a divorce on the grounds that the marriage had not been consummated and Giovanni was infertile. This was a blatant lie on at least one count, if not both—it was well-known that Giovanni’s first wife had died in childbirth. He fought against the divorce by accusing Lucrezia of incestuous relationships with both her father and brother. There was no evidence to support this, but people latched on to the rumour. Eventually even Giovanni’s own family turned against him and he was forced to sign a confession of impotence and divorce papers, in return for keeping Lucrezia’s dowry.

So goes husband #1.

During the divorce proceedings, Lucrezia spent time in a convent, where she may or may not (probably may) have had a relationship with her father’s chamberlain, Pedro Calderon. Around this time, a boy was born into the Borgia family—the Pope first claimed the child was his, then that it was Cesare’s. Either way, maternity has never been connected to Lucrezia, but the timing is suspicious. Plus, soon after the child was born, Calderon’s body was found in a river, likely after his murder by Cesare.

Lucrezia married her second husband, Alfonso d’Aragon in 1498. The marriage was, again, political, but the couple were happy. Lucrezia loved her new husband and she even once took his side against her father. They had a son in 1499, named Rodrigo after his grandfather (the Pope’s real name was Rodrigo de Borja), and in the same year Lucrezia was appointed governor of Spoleto in her own right.

Unfortunately, Alexander soon realised he would benefit more from alliances with France. Alfonso fled Rome for a time but was persuaded in 1500 to come back by Lucrezia, at which point he was attacked and almost killed on the steps of St. Peter’s Basilica. You would be forgiven for assuming this was a trap in which Lucrezia took part, but there is doubt—when Alfonso made it back, Lucrezia personally nursed her husband and placed guards outside his chambers to avoid another attack.

Her efforts (if genuine) would come to nothing, however. Some of Cesare’s men convinced the guards to leave their post, then they entered and strangled Alfonso to death. Lucrezia was devastated and, aged just 20, retired to the Etruscan Hills to grieve.

For a time, Lucrezia remained unwedded and helped her father with his correspondence when she returned to Rome. It is around them when the Borgias truly began to be feared, and also when Lucrezia gained her undeserved reputation as a poisoner.

As such, it took much convincing for Duke Alfonso d’Este to agree to become her third (and final) husband. A condition of this marriage was that Lucrezia had to leave her young son behind—she received a lot of criticism for complying with this, earning a reputation as an uncaring and neglectful mother. Considering it was forced, I would argue against this. She never saw Rodrigo again as he predeceased her in 1512, aged just 12. Lucrezia mourned deeply for her son upon receiving the news.

Marriage to this Alfonso was much more peaceful than her other marriages. She moved away to Ferrara after the wedding in 1501, and two years later her father unexpectedly died of, likely, malaria. This started the fall of the Borgias, which was equally as rapid as their rise, and helped by Cesare’s death in battle in 1507.

She was reportedly happy in her final years, and was known by her people as the ‘Good Duchess’ of Ferrara. She had eight more children with Alfonso and suffered through more miscarriages and stillbirths. Only four of these children—two sons and two daughters—would survive infancy.

In Ferrara, she used her substantial wealth to promote the arts and literature, and she also invested in acres of waterlogged, marginal land, which she drained and repurposed, thus displaying her intelligence and knowledge of business. She won her people’s support partly through her defence of Ferrara when it was threatened during Alfonso’s absence. She displayed great courage, ability, and maintained calm throughout the crisis, for which she was praised, and she also showed mercy by refusing her husband’s orders to torture prisoners.

Further, during her final years, Lucrezia poured money into charitable acts, for example the building of hospitals and convents. The people adored her, and they were shocked when she died in June 1519, aged just 39, after complications during the birth of her last child (a daughter who also died shortly after birth). Lucrezia was widely mourned.

So—a wicked temptress? A meek pawn? Both, or neither? Ultimately, the judgement is yours, but I would argue that Lucrezia Borgia was an intelligent woman who distinguished herself in a world that was often unkind to women. Her black reputation emerged after her death, fuelled by rumours spread by enemies of her family, and it has, unfortunately, taken hold.

After all, people will always go for scandal over truth.

Sources:

• ‘Renaissance Capitalist: New Research Answers Mystery About Illegitimate Daughter of Pope’, Women’s Health Weekly, 2009, 558
• Valentine, Genevieve, ‘Empire of a Wicked Woman: Catwoman, Royalty, and the Making of a Comics Icon’, Journal of Graphic Novels & Comics, 9.6 (2018), 593–611
• https://historyofyesterday.com/victim-or-vixen-the-truth-about-lucrezia-borgia-f5015102ad1c
• https://www.historyextra.com/period/renaissance/lucrezia-borgia-reputation-adulteress-pope-alexander-vi/
• http://scihi.org/lucrezia-borgia/
• https://www.thoughtco.com/lucrezia-borgia-bio-3529703